
William III of England
William of Orange rose from Dutch stadtholder to English king by invading in 1688, ruling jointly with his wife Mary before continuing alone after her death in 1694 until his own in 1702. His record includes genuine constitutional achievement alongside episodes, including the unresolved circumstances of a political lynching and his own connection to the Glencoe massacre, that historians treat as evidence of calculated political ruthlessness beneath his public image as a defender of liberty.








